A faith with several layers
Most religious Mongolians who identify with an organized religion follow Tibetan-style (Vajrayana) Buddhism, specifically the Gelug school, led in Tibet by the Dalai Lama lineage. It lives alongside older beliefs about sky, mountains and spirits, and many families mix them without seeing a conflict. Mongolian shamanism is a separate tradition, but the two have influenced each other for centuries.
How Buddhism took root
Buddhism reached the Mongols in more than one wave. Some contact occurred during the time of the empire, when rulers took an interest in many religions and invited teachers from different traditions. The lasting spread came later, in the sixteenth century. In 1578 the Mongol leader Altan Khan met the Tibetan Gelug hierarch Sonam Gyatso, and the title “Dalai Lama” is traditionally linked to that meeting. Princes across the Mongol lands then supported monasteries and translation of texts.
Another turning point came in the seventeenth century with Zanabazar, who was recognized as the first Bogd Gegen, the highest Buddhist figure in Khalkha Mongolia. He is also remembered as a sculptor and scholar. The Bogd Gegen later became the head of state at independence in 1911, known as the Bogd Khan. Under Qing rule, monasteries grew in number and wealth, and a large part of the male population is often said to have been monks, though precise figures are uncertain.
Monasteries as towns
Before the twentieth century, a large monastery was not only a place of worship. It could function as a school, a medical center, a printing house, an art workshop and a market hub. Some were mobile, moving with their communities, and the capital itself began as a moving monastic camp. Monastic art, including thangka painting, masked ritual dances and temple sculpture, developed here.
Suppression in the twentieth century
After the 1921 revolution, the new government became closely aligned with the Soviet Union and increasingly hostile to the religion. The most severe phase came in the late 1930s, when monasteries were closed, many were destroyed, and thousands of monks were arrested or killed. Estimates of the numbers vary, and anyone quoting a precise total should be treated cautiously. Only a very small number of buildings survived, some by being converted into museums or storage, and a few temples were allowed to operate under tight control.
For decades, open practice was limited. Many families quietly kept small images, prayer beads or books, and some people continued to practice in private. The memory of this period is part of why the revival feels personal to many older Mongolians.
Revival after 1990
After the democratic revolution of 1990, religious freedom was restored. Monasteries reopened, new ones were built, and older monks who had survived trained younger ones. Temples have been rebuilt, sometimes from a few salvaged items. Tibetan-style Buddhism now has a visible presence in the capital and in the countryside, though practice varies, and many people take part mostly at key moments such as a lunar festival, a blessing or a funeral.
Mongolian Buddhism sits comfortably with other customs. The Tsagaan Sar holiday, for example, contains both Buddhist and older pastoral elements, and the Mongolian calendar of auspicious days is used widely.
Monasteries worth knowing about
- Gandantegchinlen in Ulaanbaatar. This is the main active monastery in the capital and a center of Buddhist life, with a very large statue inside its main hall. It was among the few places permitted to function during the socialist era.
- Erdene Zuu in the Orkhon area. Founded in the 1580s, it was damaged in the twentieth century but partly survived. Today it combines active temples with a museum-like setting and a wall with numerous stupas.
- Smaller monasteries. Many provincial monasteries are small, rebuilt and community-run. They can be quiet and informative, and they often have no fixed schedule.
Visiting respectfully
Details vary from site to site, so follow posted signs and the guidance of staff. In general:
- Dress modestly. Covered shoulders and knees are a safe choice, and hats are usually removed indoors.
- Walk clockwise around temples, stupas and prayer wheels, as is customary.
- Ask before photographing inside buildings. Photography is often restricted or requires a fee.
- Do not touch sacred objects, and avoid pointing your feet at altars or images.
- Keep voices low during prayers. You may be allowed to watch a ceremony quietly, but you are a guest, not an audience.
- A small donation is common, but amounts are up to you. Check what is expected locally.
These habits fit the broader guidance on Mongolian etiquette. For general conduct on trips, they also overlap with responsible travel, which means arriving with curiosity and leaving things as you found them.
What to expect
Do not expect a single “Mongolian Buddhism” that looks like a museum display. You may see lamas in maroon robes reading texts, families spinning prayer wheels, new construction and old ruins within a short walk. The living tradition is still rebuilding, which is much of what makes it interesting to see.