A capital built on the steppe
Karakorum (also written Kharakhorum or Qaraqorum) was the main political center of the Mongol Empire for a relatively short period in the thirteenth century. It stood in the Orkhon Valley area in central Mongolia, a region that had been important to earlier steppe powers as well. The nearby modern town is called Kharkhorin, and it takes its name from the old capital, though it is not on exactly the same spot.
Genghis Khan is generally said to have set up a camp here around 1220. His son and successor Ogedei is credited with developing it into a more permanent city, with a wall and palace, in the 1230s. Because the Mongols were mobile, the court spent much of its time in seasonal camps, so Karakorum was a center of administration and ceremony rather than a conventional city where rulers always stayed.
What historians know about the city
Information comes from a mixture of written descriptions and excavation. Medieval travelers and envoys who visited the court wrote about it, and Chinese and Persian sources mention it. These accounts describe a place that attracted craftsmen, merchants and visitors from many lands, and they refer to different religious communities living side by side. Some details, such as the palace’s exact appearance, are known from the accounts or partial excavation, and some descriptions are likely exaggerated.
Archaeology has found evidence of craft workshops, building foundations and a layout that reflects both steppe and sedentary traditions. International teams have worked at the site over the years, and interpretations continue to change as new work appears.
A short golden age
The city’s importance was tied to the court. When Kublai Khan shifted his focus to China and founded the Yuan dynasty, with a capital in what is now Beijing, Karakorum lost much of its role. It was still a regional center for some time. After the Yuan collapsed in 1368, the city declined, and it is generally reported to have been destroyed in the late fourteenth century during conflict with Ming forces. What was left was gradually abandoned.
Erdene Zuu and reuse of the ruins
In 1585, the Buddhist monastery of Erdene Zuu was founded next to the old capital’s site, and stone and materials from the ruins are said to have been reused in its construction. A perimeter wall with a large number of stupas surrounds the main complex. Some buildings were damaged or lost in the twentieth century. Part of the complex later survived as a museum, and in recent decades some activity has returned. For the larger story, see how Mongolian Buddhism was suppressed and revived.
What visitors can see today
- Erdene Zuu monastery. Usually the main stop, with temples, the surrounding wall and a small area for worship. Hours and access vary.
- The Karakorum museum. Located near Kharkhorin, it presents finds from excavations and explains the site, and its displays are a good starting point since the ruins themselves are modest.
- The stone turtles. A few carved stone turtles on the steppe are believed to have been associated with the old city, perhaps as monument bases. One stands near the monastery wall.
- The open steppe. Much of the old city is not visibly marked on the surface. Understanding what you are looking at benefits from a map, a museum visit or a knowledgeable guide.
Set expectations accordingly. There is no standing medieval city here, only fragments and landscape.
The surrounding valley
The wider Orkhon Valley contains many other sites from different eras, including Turkic monuments with the Orkhon inscriptions, which are older than the Mongol Empire by several centuries. The Orkhon Waterfall and volcanic scenery lie further away, and the Khangai area has rolling hills, hot springs and nomadic camps. Parts of the region have been recognized internationally as cultural landscape.
Because roads, distances and conditions vary, plan journeys with current information. Traveling there from Ulaanbaatar is a common trip, but check transport options and conditions before you go.
Visiting thoughtfully
Do not climb on walls or stupas, and do not remove stones or fragments. Follow the same etiquette as at any active religious site, including modest dress and asking before photographing inside buildings. Herder families live and graze animals in the surrounding area, so keep to tracks, close any gates, and ask before entering private land.