Who the Turks were
In the sixth century CE, a Turkic-speaking people from the Altai region and the steppe overthrew the Rouran, who had dominated Mongolia, and created a large nomadic state. Chinese sources record the name of an early ruler as Bumin, with his brother Istemi in the west. The state is usually called the First Turkic Khaganate, and “khagan” is the title of its ruler. The word Turk here refers to a political people of that time, and not to modern Turkey or all Turkic-speaking nations, though there are historical links to the broader Turkic world.
At its height, the khaganate controlled very large areas of Inner Asia and became a power in the Silk Road trade. By the late sixth century, it was divided into eastern and western parts. In the seventh century, the eastern khaganate came under Tang Chinese influence for several decades. A revival around 682, often called the Second Turkic Khaganate, restored independence, and it lasted until the middle of the eighth century, when it was replaced by the Uyghurs.
The inscriptions
The best-known relics of the Second Turkic Khaganate are the carved stone monuments erected in the Orkhon Valley of central Mongolia. They are often called the Orkhon inscriptions, although the group includes several different monuments. The two most famous commemorate Kul Tigin, a prince and military leader who died in 731 or 732, and his brother Bilge Khagan, the ruler, who died in 734 and whose monument dates from 735. Another important text, associated with the advisor Tonyukuk, was set up in a different location in Mongolia and is slightly earlier.
The monuments are large stone steles, in some cases several meters tall, with inscriptions on multiple sides. Some also bear Chinese text on one face. Nearby are the remains of a memorial complex, with a site named Khöshöö Tsaidam often given as the main location for the two best-known monuments. Exact details, such as dates and spellings of names, vary between publications.
The script
The texts are written in what is called Old Turkic or Orkhon script. It is a runiform alphabet whose signs somewhat resemble European runes, though the two are not related. The script is typically written from right to left, and different signs were used depending on the vowels in the word. Its origins are debated.
Rediscovery and decipherment
Local people and travelers knew of the stones for centuries, but their significance was not understood. A Russian explorer, Nikolai Yadrintsev, drew attention to the Orkhon site in 1889. Further expeditions, including Russian and Finnish teams, recorded the monuments in the following years. In 1893 the Danish scholar Vilhelm Thomsen announced the decipherment of the script, building on the work of other researchers and on the Chinese parallel text. This was a milestone in the study of early Turkic languages.
What the texts say
The inscriptions are written in the voice of the khagan or of the leader being honored. They are not a neutral chronicle. Instead, they combine several kinds of statement:
- Origin and glory. They recall the founding of the Turkic state by earlier rulers and praise the heroes of the dynasty.
- Warnings. The texts criticize those who were deceived by the sweet words and rich gifts of the Chinese and warn that the people lost their independence as a result. This reflects the period of Tang influence.
- Military campaigns. They list battles and rebellions, with a focus on the leader’s role.
- Sky and earth. The supreme sky god, Tengri, appears as the source of the ruler’s authority, in a form of belief that overlaps with what later became Mongolian shamanism.
- Advice to the people. The tone is moral and sometimes personal, with passages of lament for the dead.
Historians therefore read the texts with the understanding that they are political statements, intended to affirm legitimacy and a sense of identity. The Chinese accounts of the same events provide a counterpoint, and the two do not always agree.
Why they matter
The Orkhon inscriptions are among the oldest substantial texts in any Turkic language, and they are the earliest big body of writing from the Mongolian steppe. For Turkic-speaking peoples in Turkey, Central Asia and elsewhere, they are a point of cultural pride, and replicas and references appear in several countries. For Mongolians, they are part of the heritage of the land, even though the Turks were not Mongols.
The valley in which they stand is also home to the Uyghur capital ruins and later sites, and the Orkhon Valley cultural landscape is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The later development of Mongolian writing, which came through Uyghur influence, is explained in the article on the Khitan and Uyghur eras.
Visiting
The monuments are located in a rural area and visitors usually reach them as part of a trip through the Khangai Mountains and central Mongolia. Some original stones have been moved or protected, and there are museum displays nearby, but arrangements change, so check the current situation locally. A museum visit in the capital or at the site can help explain the script. Weather and road conditions affect access, particularly outside the summer months.